Addictions

Should Marijuana be legalized or not ?

One of the most controversial issues facing our generation is if we should legalize marijuana. In the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, marijuana is considered as a narcotic therefore making marijuana illegal in Canada. Canada is mo re tolerant of marijuana than the United States and it shows by the statistics. The Canadian Center on Substance Abuse said about 25,000 people was arrested in Canada for simple possession of marijuana in 1999, whereas in the United States it exceeded 600,000 because of their “zero tolerance” policy. In Canada it is estimated that over two million people have smoked marijuana within the last year, and over one hundred thousand people use it daily, yet marijuana is still considered an illegal substance.

Recent years Canada passed a law allowing people with serious illnesses to use marijuana for medical purposes, only if they obtained a government exemption. On September 05, 2002, a Canadian Senate Committee had proposed that Canada should legalize marijuana, that marijuana should be licensed by dealers and to adults 16 or older. Therefore to “legalize marijuana is to eliminate the black market associated with the drug, and to separate it from harder drugs that people are often likely to encounter when buying marijuana from the black market” (Windsor Star September 20, 2002). If this policy did go through Canada would be considered as a country that is very much tolerant toward the drug.

Facts:

What is Marijuana? Marijuana is a plant. There are three species of marijuana; Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. The most active ingredient in marijuana is delta-9-tetrahydrocannibinal (THC), this creates the “high”, the euphoric feeling that one may receive while taken marijuana.

In 1937 a Marijuana Stamp Tax Act was passed. This act prohibited the possession, use, sale, and the cultivating of marijuana. During this time little was known about the plant Marijuana, plus they couldn’t understand why smoking marijuana gave them this “high .” Mainly because marijuana was closely associated with the Indians and they were seen as to be “immoral people.” But the reason why marijuana is illegal today is mainly because of research that had shown some intoxicating effects; such as hallucination, anxiety, depression, extreme variability of mood, paranoia and schizophrenia that could last up to approx. six hours. Marijuana had not been proven to be physically addictive but, it can be psychologically addictive.

Addictive Potential:

A drug is addicting if it causes compulsive, often uncontrollable drug craving, seeking, and use, even in the face of negative health and social consequences. Marijuana meets this criterion. More than 120,000 people seek treatment per year for their primary marijuana addiction. In addition, animal studies suggest marijuana causes physical dependence, and some people report withdrawal symptoms. But isn’t alcohol and cigarettes addictive too.

Physical Effects:

reddening of the eyesdryness of the mouth and throat

increase heart ratetightness of chest

drowsinesstar in lungs

unsteadinesscentral nervous system

WHAT IS YOUR OPINION ON THE MATTERS OF LEGALIZING MARIJUANA”

Against:

If we legalize marijuana, it will create a “gateway to drugs” harsher more dangerous drug use, like cocaine and heroin.
Legalizing marijuana will only make it more available for younger children, more marijuana use which will lead to more addiction and more problems.
Pot reduces thinking.
Crime rates will increase.
Allow younger kids to get a hold of.
Dangerous and causes lung cancer.
Psychological addiction
For:
Marijuana is a stress reliever.
Will decrease the crime rate if the herb is readily available. It will eliminate the need of an underground subculture.
Has medicinal values.
No one has ever died from smoking marijuana (overdose).
Waste of money on resources to find marijuana, where as the taxpayers money can go back into the community.
Law enforcement can spend more time and resources tracking down terrorists, murderers, rapists and other violent criminals.
Senate report stated marijuana is less harmful than alcohol or tobacco.
Marijuana can be taxed like cigarettes.
We Are Not The Only One
July 10 2002 Britain’s Home Secretary David Blunkett in the House of Commons, stated that they’re legalizing the use of marijuana, keeping the practice theoretically illegal but allowing private use in small amounts. With legalizing marijuana they will “raise the punishment for marijuana dealing and step up drug education and treatment for the abusers.”(David Blunkett).

Many other European countries have already legalized the use of marijuana. Netherlands has legalized marijuana, as for Luxembourg has ended jail sentences for marijuana possession. Spain and Italy do not jail people caught with drugs meant for personal use. And last year Portugal eliminated jail time for possession of small amounts of any illegal drug.

Conclusion:

My opinion on the matter of legalizing marijuana is that, even if you don’t legalize marijuana people will still use marijuana. Plus every single year our government throws away millions of dollars on its war against drug (marijuana). It costs taxpayers, let’s say, a few thousand dollars a year to keep one, non-violent drug offender in jail. So it’s only the matter of wasting taxpayers money for arresting people, marijuana has a medicinal value to human kind, acting as a stress reliever. Plus the Senate committee concludes there is no convincing evidence that smoking marijuana leads to using harder drugs.

So if we do legalize marijuana, we could create this “gateway” for more and more harmful drugs to be legalized. But isn’t that the same reacting when alcohol was legalized? Not to mention the cultivation of marijuana. How can we say it’s okay to use marijuana but not cultivating? We can always use harsher punishments and hefty fines to discourage people to grow.

Marijuana could be used for recreational purposes but mainly for the medicinal value. Marijuana needs to be regulated. A lot of European countries that have been faced with this similar issue have found very effective way of dealing with it from full legalization to only giving hefty fines. These solutions would not only help the country’s prisons as they would be less crowded, also it can boost our economy since marijuana is a billion or millions industry. There are many people that could use marijuana as a medicine to help ease pain. Many individuals with glaucoma, arthritis, AIDS and countless cancer treatment patients would no longer be denied a substance that can reduce their suffering. These things cannot be changed unless we all stand up and express our beliefs. So I believe that marijuana needs to be legalized.

The harm of drinking alcohol

The consumption of alcohol at any age can lead to life long dependencies andhealth problems. Drinking is more common among men than women, however the gap isclosing very steadily. Drinking is more common among persons under 40 and due to the changes in society we drink more at home, get together, restaurants and clubs. Althoughmany drinkers will say they do not have a problem, researchers into the short and longterm effects can prove them wrong. There are several levels of alcohol abuse, you haveyour strict social drinker, your binge drinker and your alcoholic, as well as drinkers all inbetween.
The legal age to purchase alcohol is 21. An alcoholic beverage is any liquidcontaining grain alcohol. Beer, wine, wine coolers,champagne, whiskey, brandy andliqueur are the basic types of drinking alcohol.

Unlike many addictive drugs, alcohol is legal. The drinking of alcohol has beenintegrated into our society as a form of celebration. We toast weddings, banquet socialoccasions with alcohol. We serve alcohol at holidays as well as any time we feel a drinkis in order. We use alcohol as an ice breaker and a means to get acquainted with “have adrinker “can I buy you a drink” invitations. Alcohol tends to make people morecomfortable in social settings and around strangers under age drinking is a huge problemthat cannot be controlled by law enforcement alone because of parents, friends andstrangers willing to purchase and condone the abuse.

Alcoholism is defined by ones overwhelming need or desire to consume alcoholon a regular basis. Someone who drinks regularly with no regard for themselves or peoplearound them is by all rights an alcoholic. These persons will hide their drinking lie aboutit and deny any problems. Eventually most alcoholics are confronted by their friends orfamily members. Most alcoholics can not admit when sober that there is a huge problem. Any will put through blame on many family members who they saw drinking as a sourceof their problem. However I believe drinking is a choice not a given. There are thousandsof treatment centers designed just for alcohol related dependencies. Also there are supportgroups for the alcoholic and family members to try to help them recognize there problemand fight their desire daily. As with any addictions once the addict has admitted to the problem then they need constant support from all of those close to them.

Contrary to what many people believe alcohol is a depressant. Alcohol slowsdown your body functions, impairs your speech and coordination, lowers your inhibitionsand can cause your judgment to be off. You are more likely to “Act a fool” or put yourselfand others in danger while under the influence. Many health problems can arise even withmoderate use of alcohol. Do to the decrease of your reflections even a social drinker canhave an accident plus every drinker runs the risk of liver and kidney problems as well asbrain damage. The ultimate problem with alcohol abuse is the risk of death.

Because it is socially accepted drinking is considered the “in thing to do.” Youshould make yourself aware of the risk and always have a designated driver.

Every cigarette shortens the life by 14 minutes. A person, who smokes, is ten times more likely to die from lung cancer compared to a non-smoker. On average, smoking removes 15 years from a smoker’s expected life span.

Smoking is a slow process of eventually killing yourself. Smoking has a lot of malicious effects. The smoke produced by a cigarette, not only induces the smoker but also the person standing next to the deadly smoker. The number of people addicted to smoking tobacco has increased highly over the last 5 years. Social problems and media are major reasons for this increase. Smoking, especially teenagers, has become a big problem now days in the developed countries like United States of America. Attempts are being made by trusted organizations, to prohibit teenagers from this deadly addiction, but the conclusion remains the same, FAILURE.
Smokers are every where with their foggy sphere of cigarette smoke. Tobacco smoke contributes to a number of cancers, especially lung cancer. There are more than 4,000 chemicals in cigarette smoke, including 43 known cancer-causing compounds. With the smoke, the tar also enters the lungs and the bloodstream. The tar is sticky and settles into the lungs (Smokers lungs are black in color) as well as the bloodstream. The tar becomes an obstacle in the bloodstream for the free flowing blood and blocks it. Blood is a great necessity for the heart to function. As the supply of blood is minimized, the smoker can get a heart attack or a stroke. A smoker’s heart beats three times faster than a normal heart which can cause a lot of pressure or stress for the sensitive internal organs. Smoking can reduce the lung function and the lung growth in teenagers. Smoking can be extremely perilous at the time of pregnancy. Smoking raises the level of carbon monoxide in mother’s blood providing less oxygen to the baby. The blood is also mixed with deadly chemicals which greatly affect the delicate baby. In detail, cigarette causes lung cancer, mouth cancer, kidney cancer, asthma, restlessness, fatigue, headache and many other physical as well as mental problems.

Every cigarette shortens the life by 14 minutes. A person, who smokes, is ten times more likely to die from lung cancer compared to a non-smoker. On average, smoking removes 15 years from a smoker’s expected life span. Smoking causes around one in five deaths from heart diseases. One in two lifetime smokers will die from their habit. Half of these deaths will occur in middle ages. Smoking is a true addiction of nicotine and is more powerful than the addiction of alcohol and cocaine. Everyday, 3000 teenagers get addicted to cigarettes. Smoking can be an initiation towards drugs. Teenagers who smoke are three times more likely than non-smokers to use alcohol, eight times more likely to use marijuana, and twenty-two times more likely to use cocaine. Alcohol and cigarettes are a deadly duo. Smoking can be also associated with other risky behaviors, such as fighting. In younger people, three out of four deaths from heart diseases are due to smoking.

Smokers tend to incur more medical costs than non-smokers. A smoker takes more time to recover from his illness compared to a non-smoker. Teenage smokers are more likely to see a doctor due to emotional problems. A major problem, which is being faced by several countries, is the banning of tobacco advertising which greatly influences the customers, especially the teenagers. As I told you, 3000 children start smoking everyday. These kids, who start smoking, are generally between the ages of 10 and 18. The kids account 90 percent of all new smokers. These 90 percent of the kids are inspired by the commercial (Advertising) shown on the television, which consist of cartoon characters. These statistics clearly show the target of the tobacco companies. When the kids were asked why they started smoking, they gave two reasons: They wanted to be a part of the crowd. Children don’t want to be left out, they want to be wanted. The second reason was that they feel smoking is the sign of independence. Now days, governments in developed countries are banning the use of cigarettes in commercial or public places, such as airports or train stations.

The malicious effect can be easily figured out. If, the life moves the same way, soon there will be no teenagers left to carry on the further generations. Later, the babies can also be borne deformed or handicap in some way. If you stop smoking, your risk of heart disease can reduce by half within a year of quitting, and get back to normal after fifteen years of giving up cigarettes. You can also greatly reduce your chances of getting cancer.

Fast Food is bad for your health by potentially causing unwanted conditions such as obesity and high blood pressure.

Fast food is obviously bad for your health. Just ask yourself, how many times do you have fast food a week? Fast food contains oils, fats and sugars that can affect your health, no proteins, minerals or vitamins to balance a healthy diet, and in United States, obesity is becoming a problem.
Ordering Fish and Chips means ordering wrapped up grease and fat. The oils and fats put into fast food are unbelievable. Used to attract taste buds, sugars and oils are used in fast foods to increase the taste quality, but the amount used is relatively large and this does not help a healthy diet. The fats, oils and sugars can harm a person’s diet if they are not careful. For example the addiction to fast foods can cause obesity and high blood pressure which can then go onto bigger problems. Fats, oils, and sugars used in fast foods need to be lowered to ensure everyone’s health and to lower the damage caused by addiction to these foods full of fat.

Lack of proteins, vitamins and minerals in fast foods can affect a healthy diet. Mostly containing substances that are of no use to your digestive system, fast foods do not contain many of the necessary substances for your body. For example, the lack of protein in a McDonalds hamburger leaves you feeling good, but deep inside, it is not good for your body. True, the lettuce, and tomato may be fruit and vegetables but the amount of fat and oils, cover the proteins, minerals and vitamins in these sources. More proteins, minerals, and vitamins needs to be noticed in fast foods to secure a healthy diet.

The definition of obesity is ‘very fat’ or ‘overweight’. The reason people get overweight is because of too much ‘fatty foods’ or fast foods. In United States, the number of people, especially children, being obese is increasing. This is happening because there are too much people not taking care of their diet and health and instead they are taking down fast foods everyday or week. This is becoming a problem for United States as there will be more and more obese children and adults if this continues. The government has tried to decrease the population of obesity but it has not worked. For example a ‘fat tax’ is being talked about and this may be the next option. It is where customers will have to pay more for eating fast foods. Whether this idea will go ahead or will work will depend on how addicted some people are to fast foods.

Overall, fast foods are bad for your health. It can cause high blood pressure, obesity, and leave you with an unhealthy diet. Fast foods need to cut down on the amount of fat and oils but need to put in more proteins and substances, and this way it might result in a decrease in the number of obese people in Unites States. Fast foods are destroying people’s health and it needs to stop.

Explores the hazards on young children of playing computer games.

According to the famous philosopher Heraclitus, in this world nothing is permanent, except change. Every second, millions of changes occur. Although most of these changes are insignificant some of them are too important to be left unnoticed by anyone.
The Twentieth Century saw a lot of changes for everyone. This period fostered the emergence of countless discoveries and inventions. But the most important of all these inventions is the computer. Feats which seemed to be impossible to achieve decades before its invention were achieved with great ease and precision, altering every person’s life. Life achieved a new definition. Even recreation underwent a great upheaval with the arrival of televisions, radios, movies and computer games.

If it is the wild spirit and unlimited imagination, which characterizes yesterday’s children, I believe computer games would be the trademark of today’s children. But how safe is playing computer games”

According to Dr. Philip Chua, playing computer games like any other human activity is safe, unless abused. But people must be cautioned that extreme addiction to computer games could lead to severe physical, social, and psychological problems.

Today, computers are already a necessity. In modernized countries, it is found in almost every household. However, there are strong evidences showing that computers, specifically computer games are very addictive, especially if one is expose to it at a very young age. Psychologists say that if children are exposed to computer games at a young age, they will tend to be attracted for more graphical and motional intensive games which eventually leads to violent computer games. There was even an incidence, which reported of a student missing from his class for days, only to be found in a room engaged in an uninterrupted playing of computer games. If a 16 year old, who is already mature enough to think of his own well-being gets addicted to computer games and forgets about his responsibilities, what is the probability that a 7 year old child won’t”

Studies have shown that excessive playing of computer games could lead to serious health problems. Although it is an enjoyable activity, too much playing computer is still considered to be very stressful. Listening to the loud sound effects of computer games and looking at the bright monitor screen for a prolonged period of time could even lead to hearing and visual impairment. It is also interesting to note that many computer addicts have bad posture, this is because most computer players gets carried away with the excitement that they forget to maintain a good posture.

Nowadays, we could notice more and more children are becoming obese. This is not only brought by fatty foods but also by lack of exercise. In the past, children receive their share of exercise through playing. Now, children would rather seat in the comforts of their home in front of their computers and television sets. Together with the intake of fatty foods, this could form into a time bomb waiting to explode in the form of a high blood pressure, diabetes, heart attack, stroke, etc. when the child gets older. However, a totally different thing happens to those who are overly addicted to computers. Instead of getting fat, they become thinner and suffer from malnutrition. They are too addicted to computers that they barely touch their food. [Dr. Philip Chua (online)]

It is a common fact that the computer screen emits a certain amount of radiation. Although scientists claimed that the amount of radiation emitted is too minimal to cause cancer. Yet, they could not discredit its possible long term effects. There are even possibilities that prolonged exposure to such kinds of radiation could cause genetic mutations, and other problems of the like. Studies also show that too much playing of computer games halts brain development, which eventually leads to brain damage.

Lately, psychologists have related children’s addiction to computers to a decrease in their social activities. In the past, children finds it easy to socialize with other children and meet new friends. This is a very important natural process in their growth. Unfortunately, the emergence of computer gaming makes children of today prefer to be alone than to be with friends. This encourage within them the feeling of shyness and the development of aggressiveness and an anti-social behavior.

It is important to note that most of our knowledge comes from everyday experiences. However, if a child is deprived of these experiences, just by seating in front of a computer. It would be very hard to predict how that child would grow up and survive in our society. That is why some experts said that computer games could lead to the dehumanization of its player. We all know that humans are considered to be the highest form of all animals, or also known as the social animal. Yet, if man no longer socializes, how could one be called a human at all”

Lastly, playing computer games leads to psychological problems. Since everything in computers is just a click of a mouse away, one who is used to this kind of speed may develop abnormal intolerance to the “normal” human pace. Very young children begin to expect “instant” responses to “everything they demand,” like the computer responds to their every finger click. In short children become too impatient. For them, life is empty without computers. This impression about could lead to a terrible bout of depression and eventually leads to psychological imbalance. [Dr. Philip Chua (online)]

Another danger of too much computer is that children might put themselves in the shoes of their heroes. Although there is nothing quite wrong about it, the real danger starts when children get too carried away. This might lead to extreme daydreaming hampering their abilities to think clearly, learn and perform well in school.

Unlike movies and television shows, which are regulated by a regulatory board and parental guidance, computer games are open even to the very young children. And most of the time, parents don’t even know the contents of their children’s favorite computer games. There are some games, which are too violent and are not appropriate for a child at a very young age. Unregulated and without the proper guidance, this would eventually lead to violence in children.

A good example of which occurred in our own country two to three years ago. I could no longer remember clearly my source nor the specific details of the news, all that I could remember was that a boy killed his friend using his father’s gun. It didn’t came as a surprise to me to learn that he was an addict of the popular computer game counterstrike.

Indeed, extreme addiction to playing computer games causes a lot of problems. That is why parents should supervise their children from time to time, preventing them from falling into a complete addiction. Yet, let us also remember that too much of water is also bad for our health. As the saying goes, anything in excess is bad. Computer games is never bad, it depends on its players. It depends if we allow computer games to rule our lives or allow ourselves simply to enjoy computer games as it is.

A new drug on the market, Oxycontin, is being very badly abused by teenagers today - even though it is a prescription drug. Oxycontin serves as a painkiller that is usually used on cancer patients. This heroin-like drug is supposed to only be used for severe cases such as chronic injuries.

She fights daily with addiction going to her friends’ houses and consuming “oxycotton” by any means necessary. After this consuming of about 6 tablets she hits a major high that puts her in a coma and slowly deprives her of her breathing. The person that I am talking about is my cousin she has been battling this addiction for a couple of months now. I would like to speak to you all today to inform you of her problems, what you can do to prevent this, and also help after you are addicted.
Oxycontin is one of the newest drugs out on the market now. Oxycontin serves as a painkiller that is usually used on cancer patients. This heroin-like drug is supposed to only be used for severe cases such as chronic injuries. If used without a doctor prescribing it than it can be fatal. This drug is only meant to be swallowed whole. If melted or chewed or crunched up than it increases the instant affect and can cause major problems like respiratory depression and euphoria. The people that are abusing this drug start out by just “popping” the pill then that leads to snorting then to smoking and lastly to injecting.

Oxycontin is finding its way into the mouths of many young people. The most prominent age for abuse is from ages 18-25. Oxycontin is the number one selling brand-name prescription drug that is rapidly being abused. There are many different names for Oxycontin such as “oxy,” “OC,” “oxycotton,” “killer,” or “hillbilly heroin.” Many people are confused on how these young kids obtain this drug. It’s much easier than most people would think. They make up fake symptoms and travel to various doctors getting prescriptions. Some use other methods like stealing or forging prescriptions. There is still one question where does all this money come from? One 10-mg tablet costs between $5-10 and one 80-mg tablet costs between $65-80. The average abuser consumes at least 6-10 tablets a day, when the prescribed amount is one twice a day. The scariest thing about Oxycontin is you may not know you are addicted. If you have any ill feelings about the drug speak to a specialist immediately.

Oxycontin is very difficult to get off of. The most recommended treatment is Methadone. Methadone is used on many people trying to get off of heroin or many other prescription drugs. The only problem with methadone is that it is more addictive than Oxycontin. The most important thing is for the patient to realize he/she has a problem and should be placed into a detox center. If you try and deal with the withdrawals outside a hospital you have an increasing chance of death or long-term physical effects. Addicts may never fully recover many stay on low doses of methadone or repeatedly relapse throughout their lifetime.

Prescription drugs should only be used if prescribed by a doctor and you should only take the dosage specified. Oxycontin should never be abused. It can and will ruin your life whether or not you realize it. If you think you might be addicted see a specialist immediately, the earlier you realize you have a problem the easier it can be fixed. I hope all the information I have provided you with is helpful and to me it will be worth it even if I just help one of you.

The use of tobacco products and their harmful effects.

The use of tobacco products is common in America, yet tobacco carries the risk of misuse, abuse and addiction. Addiction is a physical dependence, or when a persons behavior is taken over by the nicotine to the point that it interferes with health or well-being.
In America, it is estimated that addiction to nicotine and alcohol directly or indirectly accounts for one-third of all hospital admissions and one-quarter of all deaths. Although tobacco is legal to buy, people find it hard to believe that tobacco is habit forming like other illicit drugs. Children of tobacco abusers are three times more likely than other children to develop addictions and a variety of other problem behaviors later in life.

Nicotine abuse leads to the greatest number of problems of any drug in use in the world today. Nicotine is called the gateway drug of choice that most addicts started off with. Smoking contributes to more than 400,000 deaths each year. These deaths are mainly the result of increased numbers of cases of heart disease and emphysema of the lung.

Smoking increases the risk for cancers of the bladder, pancreas, kidney and cervix. There is an increased risk for gastritis and gastric ulceration in the persons who smoke. Cataracts of the eye lens occur with increased frequency in smokers.

When people decide to quit, it is not that easy as they may think. The most common side effect of quitting is depression; because Nicotine has antidepressant effects. Although many doctors say quitting smoking does not cause depression, but that it may unmask what is already there. Like illicit drugs, people start to smoke to cope with feelings of depressions and loneliness.

In conclusion, I feel that in order to understand smoking abuse one must really read up on all the negative effects smoking will cause in ones life. Not only are you harming yourself; but the second-hand smoke is killing others as well. If you haven’t started smoking then I suggest you don’t; but if you are one of the forty million people who do smoke, then I strongly suggest you stop. “Just Say No.”

The proliferation and easy access to drugs in the world today has significant impact on the psychology and social world of the individual. “Any substance that can change a mood or state of mind is called a psychoactive or mood-altering drug. Using psychoactive drugs can escalate into an addiction, which is a physical or psychological dependence on the drug. With psychological dependence, a person needs to keep taking a drug to get its effects. A physical dependence means that if someone stops taking the drug, withdrawal symptoms occur and the person feels uncomfortable or sick. Some people have both types of drug dependence (Monroe, 1994). Alcohol is considered a drug under the above definition. Other common drugs include marijuana, heroine, cocaine and it’s derivative, crack, LSD and other stimulant drugs.
Individuals who suffer from addictions, or substance abuse disorders, often have comorbid mental disorders that may be primary or secondary in the etiology of their addiction (Khantzian, 1985); (Kosten and Rounsaville, 1986); (Kranzler and Liebowitz, 1988); (Ross, et al, 1988);(Rounsaville, et al, 1982). The combination of drug dependence and psychopathology is an important treatment consideration. The implications of the interaction of the addiction with the pathology in the context of the addict’s environment is of acute importance in the planning and implementation of treatment. Implications concerning expected outcomes may be interrelated as well. “Researchers and clinicians view accompanying psychopathology as having a significant impact on a drug-dependent person’s addiction patterns and ability to become drug-free and avoid relapse. The research demonstrates that opiate addiction … is most often associated with other comorbid psychopathology. It suggests a need for thorough assessment for general psychopathology in … addicts entering addiction treatment, especially assessment for anxiety and affective disorders. It also suggests the need for treatment that focuses on diagnosed mental disorders in addition to drug counseling for the substance abuse disorder” (Milby, et al, 1996, pp. 95).
Many managed health care organizations are cutting funding for standard psychological testing for purposes of assessment and treatment of individuals diagnosed with an alcohol or other drug use disorder. However, there is limited empirical information about the short-term stability of neuropsychological status and other characteristics that are useful to assess early in treatment. A study completed in 1997 examined the stability of neuropsychological test scores within the first 3 weeks following diagnosis of an alcohol use disorder. Early assessments of neuropsychological status were psychometrically stable, and also provided reasonably stable indicants of clinically significant impairment(Bates, 1997).Streamlined health care delivery systems and reduced insurance for treatment of substance use disorders require that treatment decisions must often be made in a timely fashion (Meek et al., 1989). “The ability to obtain valid neuropsychological data shortly after alcohol problem identification may enhance the design of clinical research by allowing assessments of clients’ impairment to be closely linked in time to the start of treatment. This seems particularly important for understanding the impact of neurocognitive impairment on successful outcomes within new treatment delivery systems that emphasize short-term traditional treatment plans, outpatient care and an increasing variety of brief interventions” (Bates, 1997, pp. 21). These trends suggest that valid information regarding neurocognitive status can be obtained, the more useful it may be to inform clinical decision making (Weinstein and Shaffer, 1993). Research aimed at understanding the prognostic significance of
neuropsychological deficit to treatment process and outcome can also be used or efficient clinical decision making (Bates, 1993).
“Traditionally, both psychologists performing testing as well as recipients of testing had free rein in both the types and number of tests given, as well as in the time allotted for testing and report writing. I t was not uncommon for psychologists to give entire batteries of tests, including IQ tests, projective tests, neuropsychological tests, and educational tests, as well as various personality inventories and mood scales. They quite commonly requested tests specific to language impairments, vocational aptitudes, sexual dysfunction, and even ADD and ADHD in adults, to name a few. However questionable they may have been to outsiders, these batteries were often deemed an absolute necessity by professionals seeking answers about a patient’s functioning, level of impairment and/or behavior” (Werthman, 1995, pp. 15).
In addition to the consideration of cost in time and money, the increase in brief therapy modalities and an inclination to more short term hospitalization within the mental health arena, leads more professionals to the opinion that less testing is required. Testing should be specific to the presenting problem and expanding on the basis of history and behavior. Managed care has caused professionals to revisit the medical necessity and efficacy of their testing practices. Currently, the emphasis is on the use of highly targeted and focused psychological and neuropsychological testing to sharply define the “problems” to be treated, the degree of impairment, the level of care to be provided and the treatment plan to be implemented. The high specificity and “problem-solving” approach of such testing reflects the commitment to effecting therapeutic change, as opposed to obtaining a descriptive narrative with scores. Testing is perceived as a strong tool for assisting the professional in more accurately diagnosing and subsequent recommendation of treatment alternatives (Werthman, 1995).
Providers often have difficulty in accurately assessing or ruling out dementia and other neuropsychological impairments. This is particularly true when there is a co-existing primary Axis I diagnosis of substance dependence. In addressing such dilemmas initial assessment is used to determine which of the neuropsychological tests is appropriate and/or which parts of the Wechsler scales might be necessary to assist the provider in managing the case. Frequently, specific parts of tests or individual tests, rather than entire batteries, can provide the diagnostic information necessary for the initial identification of patient problems and concurrent treatment planning. Testing is a “tool” used to augment the clinical expertise and diagnostic resources of the primary provider. This trend has been most evident in the assessment of individuals believed to be suffering from organicity, concurrent with a psychiatric diagnosis and with individuals having dual diagnoses such as psychiatric and substance abuse and, or, dependence (Werthman, 1995). The term, “dual diagnosis” is often used interchangeably with “psychopathology” but they are separate concepts.
The psychopathology of drug addiction can be defined under four-type-based classifications of drug abusers: Type A addicts (adjustment disorders) present an evident relation between the external event, psychic trauma, and drug-abusing behavior. Type B (neurotic disorders) have a tendency to reduce internal anxiety by drug abuse, and their personal problems may be covered by drug use. Type C (psychosis and borderline) are a heterogeneous group, where often drug use can create an intense experience of inner freedom. Type D (sociopathic personality disorders) often express their psychic conflicts by means of serious acting-out, and come from families were ‘nonexistent’ marriages were established. Family structure and functionality underlies such personality types. The typology of drug addicts may shed light on prevention and therapy, whereas more specific therapeutic programs are needed (Cancrini, 1994). The importance of psychological testing to identify the existance, type and scope of the psychopathology is paramount. The implications for prevention, early detection and treatment are inherent in the incidence of comorbid addictions as shown in the many studies on the inter relatedness of addiction, behavior and psychopathology.
Since the 1970s, researchers have begun systematic investigations of the differential characteristics of narcotic addicts. As a consequence, addicts have been classified on many dimensions, including type, frequency, and severity of criminal behavior (Nurco, et al, 1991), opportunity and motivation to use narcotic drugs (Nurco, et al, 1981) and extent and severity of psychiatric problems (McLellan, et al, 1983). “Gender and ethnic differences have also been found to have an important bearing on treatment planning. Female addicts, for example, are more likely than male addicts to experience health problems, whereas male addicts are more likely to abuse drugs and commit crime while in treatment With respect to ethnicity, black and white addicts tend to have different patterns of nonnarcotic drug use” (Nurco, et al, 1997, pp. 523). Behaviors and experiences occurring after the onset of narcotic addiction have been the primary focus of classifications of narcotic addicts derived to date. While these typologies are valuable for developing intervention strategies for different types of individuals, they have ignored variations in precursors to addiction that are relevant to subsequent addiction status. The identification of these precursors would be valuable for both prevention and early intervention purposes by providing information on early manifestations and correlates of problem behavior exhibited by adult narcotic addicts. (Nurco, et al, 1997) Findings have suggested the usefulness of examining information on early adolescent activity, perceptions, and experiences in five major areas: family; peer associates; deviance proneness; psychological status; and protective, or resilient, features. In any given case, treatment efforts should be guided by the extent to which each of these areas impacts on the individual’s development and current status. (Nurco, et al, 1997). The inclusion of psychological status as one of the major areas is indicative of the importance of psychological testing in early intervention and prevention of subsequent drug addiction.
Khantzian (1985) proposes that opiate-dependent individuals are attracted to their drug of choice because of its effectiveness in altering prevailing aversive emotional states. He suggests the drug addict’s choice of a substance provides a substitute for lack of satisfactory internal emotional control. Behavioral anomalies such as conduct disorder and antisocial personality are often found to be associated with alcohol and drug problems. Several investigators have noted that sociopathic behavior in children predicts a tendency toward antisocial personality behavior, alcohol abuse and drug problems later in life. An analysis of 40 studies showed a strong positive correlation between alcoholism and drug abuse, between alcoholism and antisocial personality, and between drug abuse and antisocial personality (Schubert et al. 1988).
In a study done with 252 male methadone maintained patients to determine profiles based on four continuous measures of antisociality: 1) childhood conduct disorder; 2) adult antisocial personality disorder symptoms; t3) the revised Psychopathy Checklist; and 4) the Socialization scale of the California Psychological Inventory, it was determined that the expression of antisociality supported the validity of a more complex conceptualization of antisociality than is provided by antisocial personality disorder. The study identified six replicable and temporally stable cluster groups varying in degree and pattern of antisociality. The external criterion variable that were used were: the Addiction Severity Index measures of past and recent substance abuse; functioning and lifetime criminal history; Axis I and II symptomatology, anxiety and depression, object relations and reality testing, hostility, guilt, and machiavellianism (Alterman, et al, 1998). The implications of the study on treatment will be in assessing sociality and implementing appropriate strategies for extinguishing anti-social behavior associated with the addictive behavior.
The relationship of African Self-Consciousness (ASC) to misorientation behavior as evidenced in African American males who are addicted to crack and/or cocaine was the subject of a study done to gain a broader understanding of Azibo nosology. The substance addiction is counted as a self-destructive disorder and is considered an underlying factor in Azibo nosology. It is believed to be correlated with psychological misorientation in the pathology of African personality theory (Dixon and Azibo, 1998). Culturalization issues and the propensity to addiction of African males exhibiting misorientation behavior can be addressed in terms of prevention of substance abuse in this particular group.
The role of the primary care physician in diagnosing, treatment and recovery of substance abuse is primarily seen as initially support, information and referral and subsequent management of drug-related psychological conditions such as depression and anxiety and drug management using methadone, naltrexone and disulfiram may also be effective. The area where the physician can be the most effective is in the instance of recovering addicts who may seek out the physician for complaints associated with the addiction (Friedmann, et al, 1998). These patients may have achieved abstinence through completion of an addiction treatment program, attendance at a self-help program, or on their own (Sobell, et al, 1996). The clinical examination may provide some clues (e.g., spider nevi, scars from needle tracks) to the history of substance use problems, but it is not a substitute for nonjudgmental, direct questioning and testing for co-morbid disorders that are the province of a psychologist or psychologist. Referrals to other health professionals will initiate the process of establishing a multi-disciplinary team that can assess and recommend alternatives on all levels of the individual’s social, psychological and physical needs in treating the addiction, other psychological disorders and physical complaints in addition to facilitating the recovery process.
One of the roles the unconscious plays in addiction is that of the underlying fantasy process. Studies suggest that unconscious fantasies play a determining role in persisting patterns of substance abuse and addiction. Addiction is seen as both a derivative of the persistence of these unresolved fantasies and as an inadequate compromise formation. Given these suggestions, relapse can be seen as a manifestation of the episodic reassertion and influence of these powerful fantasies (Cattano, 1996). The role of testing is to determine the existence and extent of the underlying fantasy and to facilitate successful treatment by providing the foundational information necessary to work through the underlying fantasy process and the establishment
of healthier compromise formations.
A study done in 1995 indicates that coping styles are related to psychopathology. In many instances, the coping mechanism of choice is alcohol or substance abuse. Testing to determine the etiology of the pathology is conducive to understanding the addictive behavior. It is frequently beneficial to treat the underlying pathology in an effort to aide treatment and recovery (Belding, et al, 1996).
Many of the studies done in the field of pharmacology suggest that there is a correlation between addictive traits and the functioning of the neuroprocessors strongly affected by dopamine or seratonin inhibitors. There is reason to believe that a pharmacological approach could help people with reward deficiency syndrome. Studies suggest that the pharmacological sensitivity of alcoholics to dopaminergic agonists may be partly determined by the individual’s genotype. The use of these compounds is suggested in the treatment of alcoholics or stimulant-dependent people. One study has already shown that the use of dopaminergic agonists with rat populations significantly suppresses the animal’s symptoms after the withdrawal of opiates (Harris and Aston-Jones, 1994). These results strongly suggest an interrelationship between the addicts neuroresponses and the those of mood and behavior disordered individuals.
Unlike certain other complex disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, the early identification and treatment of alcohol and drug abuse can occasionally alter the devastating course of these addictions. Consider the successes of self-help programs such as Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous, psychopharmacological adjunctive therapy, neuroregulation or brain-wave training and electrophysiological stimulation. Identifying individual’s high probability of addiction potential offers the possibility of helping individuals before alcoholism or substance abuse affects their lives. There is new hope for better treatment, new forms of prevention and the removal of the social stigma attached not only to alcoholism but also to related “reward-seeking”, or addictive behaviors (Blum, et al, 1996). Diagnosis of neurological etiology as opposed to psychopathological foundations are dependent upon both a thorough physical examination and psychological testing. As with other diagnosis that are treated pharmacologically, the process of treatment must address all aspects of the problem.
Psychological testing is used when there is a need to clarify a therapeutic situation. In the case of alcohol and, or substance abuse, it is important to determine whether there is an incidence of dual diagnosis, psychopathology to the addiction or a neurobiological etiology. The medical professional conducts an initial assessment to determine if there exists evidence of psychotic processes, suicidality, homicidality - or even any symptoms of depression.
The process of interviewing the individual and any persons available who might have knowledge of the individual’s behavior is implemented before more extensive testing is recommended. The professional looks for indications of behaviors usually attributed to conduct disorders, for example: evasiveness, neglect of responsibilities, stealing, lying, and aggressive behaviors such as initiating fights. Involvement with law enforcement and history of therapeutic interventions are also inquired about. Questions concerning physical and medical history are appropriate as well. Once the initial assessment is complete, the physician, psychologist or other professional is more prepared to suggest the appropriate testing for the individual.
Studies concerning alcohol and substance abuse indicate a high occurrence of personality, conduct and psychological disorders. There are indications that the misuse and addiction of substances is only one component in a myriad of influences on the individual. Efficient initial assessment techniques and the use of psychological testing can determine the proper course for treatment and recovery. Testing can also be implemented as a tool in prevention of substance abuse by the early detection and treatment of interrelated psychological problems.

REFERENCES

Alterman, Arthur I.; McDermott, Paul A.; Cacciola, John S.; Rutherford, Megan J.; Boardamn, Chris R.; McKay, James R.; Cook, Terry G. (1998, August). A Typology Of Antisociality In Methadone Patients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 107(3) pp. 412(11).

Hello, lets start by sharing our experiences, addictions and if we want to get rid of them or not.
Me?.. I smoke and I play alot of mmorpgs (interactive online games). The saddest part is that I don’t want to quit and I like what I’m doing. I can even “see” the bright future waiting for me there on the www .
Guess I’m an internet addict.
(those were the harmless addictions… to be continued! )